Research Article
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Intelligence Differences across Years: A Trend Analysis

Year 2023, Volume: 16 Issue: 1, 107 - 126, 31.01.2023
https://doi.org/10.30831/akukeg.1099061

Abstract

Flynn effect which advocated that there was a rise in the IQ score was widely accepted by the relevant scientific community. However, this effect has been reversed in recent years. In this study both Flynn and anti-Flynn effects were investigated. The purpose of this study is to determine the trend of students' general, verbal, and visual intelligence scores in the last 6 years (2016-2021). The participant of study included 2192 students who were first grade. To measure general, verbal, and visual intelligence of the participant, Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale (ASIS) was used. ASIS is the first intelligence test developed and standardized in Turkey. Participants’ mean of general, verbal, and visual intelligence scores in different years were compared by trend analysis. The research findings showed that there was a downward tendency in general, verbal, and visual scores between the years of 2016 to 2021. Moreover, our findings reveal that there is a sharp decrease between 2020 and 2021. Girls' GIQ, VIQ, and NIQ scores of 2021 showed a sharp decline compared to boys. As a result of this study, it can be said that the Flynn effect has gone into reversed.

References

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  • Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 1–29.
  • Başaran, M., Doğan, E., Karaoğlu, E., & Şahin, E. (2020). Koronavirüs (covid-19) pandemi sürecinin getirisi olan uzaktan eğitimin etkililiği üzerine bir çalışma [A study on effectiveness of distance education, as a return of coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic process]. Academia Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 5(2), 368-397.
  • Bayburtlu, Y. S. (2020). Covid-19 pandemi dönemi uzaktan eğitim sürecinde öğretmen görüşlerine göre Türkçe eğitimi [Turkish education during covid-19 pandemic distance education process]. Turkish Studies, 15(4), 131-151. https://doi.org/ 10.7827/TurkishStudies.44460
  • Bennett, D. J., & Warren, W. (2002). Size scaling: Retinal or environmental frame of reference? Perceptions & Psychophysics, 64(3), 462-477.
  • Bordone, V., Scherbov, S., & Steiber, N. (2015). Smarter every day: The deceleration of population ageing in terms of cognition. Intelligence, 52, 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.07.005
  • Bratsberg, B., & Rogeberg, O. (2018). Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(26), 6674-6678. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718793115
  • Cao W., Fang Z., Hou G., Han M., Xu X., Dong J., et al.(2020). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Res. 287, 112934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112934
  • Cırık, M., Sak, U., & Öpengin, E. (2020). Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğu olan çocukların Anadolu-Sak Zekâ Ölçeği profillerinin incelenmesi [An investigation of cognitive profiles of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder through Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale]. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 21(4), 663-685. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.570505
  • Coller, R. J., & Webber, S. (2020). COVID-19 and the well-being of children and families. Pediatrics, 146(4), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-022079
  • Cooper, L. A. (1975). Mental rotation of random two-dimensional shapes. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 20-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90003-1
  • Daley, T. C., Whaley, S. E., Sigman, M. D., Espinosa, M. P., & Neumann, C. (2003). IQ on the rise: The Flynn effect in rural Kenyan children. Psychological Science, 14, 215–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.02434
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  • Erol, M., & Erol, A. (2020). Koronavirüs pandemisi sürecinde ebeveynleri gözünden ilkokul öğrencileri [Primary school students through the eyes of their parents during covid-19 pandemic]. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 49(1), 529-551. https://doi.org/10.37669/milliegitim.766194
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  • Flynn, J. R. (2000). IQ gains and fluid g. American Psychologist, 55(5), 543. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.543
  • Gentner, D. (1983). Structure mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-0213(83)80009-3
  • Hopko, D.R., Crittendon, J. A., Grant, E. & Wilson, S. A. (2005) The impact of anxiety on performance IQ. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 18(1), 17-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800412336436
  • Hornstra, L., van der Veen, I., Peetsma, T. & Volman, M. (2013). Developments in motivation and achievement during primary school: a longitudinal study on group-specific differences. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.09.004
  • Karaman, M. A., Eşici, H., Tomar, İ. H., & Aliyev, R. (2021). COVID-19: Are school counseling services ready? Students' psychological symptoms, school counselors' views, and solutions. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 647-740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647740
  • König, C., & Frey, A. (2022). The impact of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement-A meta-analysis. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 41(1), 16-22. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12495
  • Kuhfeld, M., Soland, J., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020). Projecting the potential impact of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. Educational Researcher, 49(8), 549-565. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20965918
  • Lynn, R. (2009). What has caused the Flynn effect? Secular increases in the development quotients of infants. Intelligence, 37, 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.07.008
  • McGrew, K. S. (2010). The Flynn effect and its critics: Rusty linchpins and “Lookin’ for g and Gf in some of the wrong places.” Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28, 448-468. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282910373347
  • McGrew, S. K. (2009). CHC theory and the human cognitive abilities project: Standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric intelligence research. Intelligence, 37, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.08.004
  • Must, O., Must, A., & Raudik, V. (2003). The Flynn effect for gains in literacy found in Estonia is not a Jensen effect. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 1287−1292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00115-0
  • Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. (2015). One century of global IQ gains: A formal meta-analysis of the Flynn effect (1909–2013). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(3), 282-306. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615577701
  • Pietschnig, J., Deimann, P., Hirschmann, N., & Kastner-Koller, U. (2021). The Flynn effect in Germanophone preschoolers (1996–2018): Small effects, erratic directions, and questionable interpretations. Intelligence, 86, 101544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2021.101544
  • Pietschnig, J., Voracek, M., & Formann, A. K. (2011). Female Flynn effects: No sex differences in generational IQ gains. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(5), 759–762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.019
  • Rindermann, H., Becker, D., & Coyle, T. R. (2017). Survey of expert opinion on intelligence: The Flynn effect and the future of intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 242-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.061
  • Rodgers, J. L. (1999). A critique of the Flynn effect: massive IQ gains, methodological artifacts, or both? Intelligence, 26, 337–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00004-5
  • Rönnlund, M., & Nilsson, L. G. (2009). Flynn effects on sub-factors of episodic and semantic memory: Parallel gains over time and the same set of determining factors. Neuropsychologia, 47(11), 2174–2180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.11.007
  • Sak, U., Bal-Sezerel, B., Ayas, M. B., Özdemir, N. N., Demirel, S., & Öpengin, E. (2016). Anadolu Sak Zeka Ölçeği uygulayıcı kitabı [Anadolu Sak Intelligence Scale users’ manuel]. Alf Kırtasiye Basım.
  • Sak, U., Bal-Sezerel, B., Dulger, E., Sozel, K., & Ayas, M. B. (2019). Validity of the Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale in the identification of gifted students. Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 61(3), 263-283.
  • Schneider, W. J., & McGrew, K. S. (2012). The Cattell‐Horn‐Carroll model of intelligence. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: theories, tests and issues (pp. 99‐144). Guilford Press.
  • Shayer, M., & Ginsburg, D. (2009). Thirty years on–a large anti‐Flynn effect/(II): 13‐and 14‐year‐olds. Piagetian tests of formal operations norms 1976–2006/7. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(3), 409-418. https://doi.org/10.1348/978185408X383123
  • Shayer, M., Ginsburg, D., & Coe, R. (2007). Thirty years on–a large anti‐Flynn effect? The Piagetian test Volume & Heaviness norms 1975–2003. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1), 25-41. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906X96987
  • Smith, J., Guimond, F. A., Bergeron, J., St-Amand, J., Fitzpatrick, C., & Gagnon, M. (2021). Changes in students’ achievement motivation in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: A function of extraversion/introversion? Education Sciences, 11(1), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11010030
  • Sözel, H. K., Öpengin, E., Sak, U., & Karabacak, F. (2018). The discriminant validity of the Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale (ASIS) for gifted and other special education groups. Turkish Journal of Giftedness and Education, 8(2), 160-180.
  • Takano, Y. (1989). Perception of rotated forms: A theory of information types. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 1-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90002-9
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Year 2023, Volume: 16 Issue: 1, 107 - 126, 31.01.2023
https://doi.org/10.30831/akukeg.1099061

Abstract

References

  • Azevedo, J. P., Hasan, A., Goldemberg, D., Geven, K., & Iqbal, S. A. (2021). Simulating the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning outcomes: A set of global estimates. The World Bank Research Observer, 36(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkab003
  • Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 1–29.
  • Başaran, M., Doğan, E., Karaoğlu, E., & Şahin, E. (2020). Koronavirüs (covid-19) pandemi sürecinin getirisi olan uzaktan eğitimin etkililiği üzerine bir çalışma [A study on effectiveness of distance education, as a return of coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic process]. Academia Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 5(2), 368-397.
  • Bayburtlu, Y. S. (2020). Covid-19 pandemi dönemi uzaktan eğitim sürecinde öğretmen görüşlerine göre Türkçe eğitimi [Turkish education during covid-19 pandemic distance education process]. Turkish Studies, 15(4), 131-151. https://doi.org/ 10.7827/TurkishStudies.44460
  • Bennett, D. J., & Warren, W. (2002). Size scaling: Retinal or environmental frame of reference? Perceptions & Psychophysics, 64(3), 462-477.
  • Bordone, V., Scherbov, S., & Steiber, N. (2015). Smarter every day: The deceleration of population ageing in terms of cognition. Intelligence, 52, 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.07.005
  • Bratsberg, B., & Rogeberg, O. (2018). Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(26), 6674-6678. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718793115
  • Cao W., Fang Z., Hou G., Han M., Xu X., Dong J., et al.(2020). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Res. 287, 112934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112934
  • Cırık, M., Sak, U., & Öpengin, E. (2020). Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğu olan çocukların Anadolu-Sak Zekâ Ölçeği profillerinin incelenmesi [An investigation of cognitive profiles of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder through Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale]. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 21(4), 663-685. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.570505
  • Coller, R. J., & Webber, S. (2020). COVID-19 and the well-being of children and families. Pediatrics, 146(4), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-022079
  • Cooper, L. A. (1975). Mental rotation of random two-dimensional shapes. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 20-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90003-1
  • Daley, T. C., Whaley, S. E., Sigman, M. D., Espinosa, M. P., & Neumann, C. (2003). IQ on the rise: The Flynn effect in rural Kenyan children. Psychological Science, 14, 215–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.02434
  • Deak, G. O. (2014). Interrelations of language and cognitive development. In P. Brooks & V. Kampe, (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language development (pp. 284-291). Sage Publications.
  • Dutton, E., & Lynn, R. (2015). A negative Flynn Effect in France, 1999 to 2008–9. Intelligence, 51(2015), 67-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.05.005
  • Dutton, E., van der Linden, D., & Lynn, R. (2016). The negative Flynn Effect: A systematic literature review. Intelligence, 59, 163-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.10.002
  • Dülger, E. (2018). Anadolu-Sak Zekâ Ölçeği'nin (ASIS) ölçüt geçerliği çalışması [A study on the criterion validity of the Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale (ASIS)] (Dissertation Number: 494226). [Unpublished master thesis, Anadolu University]. Yükseköğretim Kurulu Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
  • Engzell, P., Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D. (2021). Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(17), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022376118
  • Eppig, C., Fincher, C. L., & Thornhill, R. (2010). Parasite prevalence and the worldwide distribution of cognitive ability. Proceedings of the Royal Society: Series B. Biological Sciences, 277, 3801-3808. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.0973
  • Erol, M., & Erol, A. (2020). Koronavirüs pandemisi sürecinde ebeveynleri gözünden ilkokul öğrencileri [Primary school students through the eyes of their parents during covid-19 pandemic]. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 49(1), 529-551. https://doi.org/10.37669/milliegitim.766194
  • Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., & Alfonso, V. C. (2007). Essentials of cross-battery assessment (2nd ed.). Wiley. Flynn, J. R. (1984). The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 29-51. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.1.29
  • Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 171-191. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0090408
  • Flynn, J. R. (2000). IQ gains and fluid g. American Psychologist, 55(5), 543. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.543
  • Gentner, D. (1983). Structure mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-0213(83)80009-3
  • Hopko, D.R., Crittendon, J. A., Grant, E. & Wilson, S. A. (2005) The impact of anxiety on performance IQ. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 18(1), 17-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800412336436
  • Hornstra, L., van der Veen, I., Peetsma, T. & Volman, M. (2013). Developments in motivation and achievement during primary school: a longitudinal study on group-specific differences. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.09.004
  • Karaman, M. A., Eşici, H., Tomar, İ. H., & Aliyev, R. (2021). COVID-19: Are school counseling services ready? Students' psychological symptoms, school counselors' views, and solutions. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 647-740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647740
  • König, C., & Frey, A. (2022). The impact of COVID-19-related school closures on student achievement-A meta-analysis. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 41(1), 16-22. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12495
  • Kuhfeld, M., Soland, J., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020). Projecting the potential impact of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. Educational Researcher, 49(8), 549-565. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20965918
  • Lynn, R. (2009). What has caused the Flynn effect? Secular increases in the development quotients of infants. Intelligence, 37, 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.07.008
  • McGrew, K. S. (2010). The Flynn effect and its critics: Rusty linchpins and “Lookin’ for g and Gf in some of the wrong places.” Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28, 448-468. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282910373347
  • McGrew, S. K. (2009). CHC theory and the human cognitive abilities project: Standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric intelligence research. Intelligence, 37, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.08.004
  • Must, O., Must, A., & Raudik, V. (2003). The Flynn effect for gains in literacy found in Estonia is not a Jensen effect. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 1287−1292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00115-0
  • Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. (2015). One century of global IQ gains: A formal meta-analysis of the Flynn effect (1909–2013). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(3), 282-306. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615577701
  • Pietschnig, J., Deimann, P., Hirschmann, N., & Kastner-Koller, U. (2021). The Flynn effect in Germanophone preschoolers (1996–2018): Small effects, erratic directions, and questionable interpretations. Intelligence, 86, 101544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2021.101544
  • Pietschnig, J., Voracek, M., & Formann, A. K. (2011). Female Flynn effects: No sex differences in generational IQ gains. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(5), 759–762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.019
  • Rindermann, H., Becker, D., & Coyle, T. R. (2017). Survey of expert opinion on intelligence: The Flynn effect and the future of intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 242-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.061
  • Rodgers, J. L. (1999). A critique of the Flynn effect: massive IQ gains, methodological artifacts, or both? Intelligence, 26, 337–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00004-5
  • Rönnlund, M., & Nilsson, L. G. (2009). Flynn effects on sub-factors of episodic and semantic memory: Parallel gains over time and the same set of determining factors. Neuropsychologia, 47(11), 2174–2180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.11.007
  • Sak, U., Bal-Sezerel, B., Ayas, M. B., Özdemir, N. N., Demirel, S., & Öpengin, E. (2016). Anadolu Sak Zeka Ölçeği uygulayıcı kitabı [Anadolu Sak Intelligence Scale users’ manuel]. Alf Kırtasiye Basım.
  • Sak, U., Bal-Sezerel, B., Dulger, E., Sozel, K., & Ayas, M. B. (2019). Validity of the Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale in the identification of gifted students. Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 61(3), 263-283.
  • Schneider, W. J., & McGrew, K. S. (2012). The Cattell‐Horn‐Carroll model of intelligence. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: theories, tests and issues (pp. 99‐144). Guilford Press.
  • Shayer, M., & Ginsburg, D. (2009). Thirty years on–a large anti‐Flynn effect/(II): 13‐and 14‐year‐olds. Piagetian tests of formal operations norms 1976–2006/7. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(3), 409-418. https://doi.org/10.1348/978185408X383123
  • Shayer, M., Ginsburg, D., & Coe, R. (2007). Thirty years on–a large anti‐Flynn effect? The Piagetian test Volume & Heaviness norms 1975–2003. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1), 25-41. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906X96987
  • Smith, J., Guimond, F. A., Bergeron, J., St-Amand, J., Fitzpatrick, C., & Gagnon, M. (2021). Changes in students’ achievement motivation in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: A function of extraversion/introversion? Education Sciences, 11(1), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11010030
  • Sözel, H. K., Öpengin, E., Sak, U., & Karabacak, F. (2018). The discriminant validity of the Anadolu-Sak Intelligence Scale (ASIS) for gifted and other special education groups. Turkish Journal of Giftedness and Education, 8(2), 160-180.
  • Takano, Y. (1989). Perception of rotated forms: A theory of information types. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 1-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90002-9
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There are 55 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Studies on Education
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Bilge Bal Sezerel 0000-0001-7262-3563

N. Nazlı Ateşgöz 0000-0001-5944-937X

Nilgün Kirişçi 0000-0003-0925-7331

Publication Date January 31, 2023
Submission Date April 15, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2023 Volume: 16 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Bal Sezerel, B., Ateşgöz, N. N., & Kirişçi, N. (2023). Intelligence Differences across Years: A Trend Analysis. Journal of Theoretical Educational Science, 16(1), 107-126. https://doi.org/10.30831/akukeg.1099061