Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes

Year 2021, Volume: 3 Issue: 1, 33 - 40, 30.04.2021

Onur Tokgöz Nimet Korkmaz Serkan Pancar

Abstract

The aim of this research was to compare the Trail Making Test (TMT) scores of open and closed skills sports’ athletes. Total of 85 volunteers who are footballers, track and field athletes and sedentary participated. Participants performed the short form of International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and TMT (A/B). The statistical package program “SPSS 22.0” was used to analyze the data. In the analysis of categorical data, independent-t test and one-way analysis of variance were used to examine the statistical difference between independent groups. Correlations between continuous variables were performed using Pearson’s corelation analysis. There was no statistically significant difference between the TMT score of footballers and track and field athletes (p>0.05). While there was no statistically significant difference between the metabolic equivalent (MET) levels of football players and track and field athletes (p<0.05), the MET levels of both groups were significantly higher than those of sedentary group (p>0.05). As a result, there was no difference between open skill athletes (footballers) and closed-skill athletes (track and field athlete) in terms of motor processing speed, attention, number sorting (form A) and task-switch, cognitive flexibility, functioning memory, visual scanning (form B) skills.

Keywords

Open Skilled Closed Skill Trail Making Test

Thanks

I would like to thank Yakup Zühtü Birinci who made very valuable contributions to our work.

References

  • Alvurdu, S., Keskin, K. C., Koçak, M., Şenel, Ö., & Günay, M. (2019). Is Vertical Jump Associated with Change of Direction Ability in Soccer Players? A Pilot Study. The Journal of Eurasia Sport Sciences and Medicine, 1(2), 57-64. Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child development, 81(6), 1641-1660.
  • Bianco, V., Di Russo, F., Perri, R. L., & Berchicci, M. (2017). Different proactive and reactive action control in fencers’ and boxers’ brain. Neuroscience, 343, 260-268.
  • Chueh, T. Y., Huang, C. J., Hsieh, S. S., Chen, K. F., Chang, Y. K., & Hung, T. M. (2017). Sports training enhances visuo-spatial cognition regardless of open-closed typology. PeerJ, 5, e3336.
  • Cona, G., Cavazzana, A., Paoli, A., Marcolin, G., Grainer, A., & Bisiacchi, P. S. (2015). It’s a matter of mind! Cognitive functioning predicts the athletic performance in ultra-marathon runners. PloS one, 10(7), e0132943.
  • Davis, C. L., Tomporowski, P. D., McDowell, J. E., Austin, B. P., Miller, P. H., Yanasak, N. E., ... & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial. Health Psychology, 30(1), 91.
  • Deslandes, A., Moraes, H., Ferreira, C., Veiga, H., Silveira, H., Mouta, R., ... & Laks, J. (2009). Exercise and mental health: many reasons to move. Neuropsychobiology, 59(4), 191-98.
  • Di Russo, F., Bultrini, A., Brunelli, S., Delussu, A. S., Polidori, L., Taddei, F., ... & Spinelli, D. (2010). Benefits of sports participation for executive function in disabled athletes. Journal of Neurotrauma, 27(12), 2309-2319.
  • Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964.
  • Evert, D. L., & Oscar-Berman, M. (1995). Alcohol-related cognitive impairments. Alcohol Research, 19(2), 89
  • Paşaoğlu H, Günay M, Paşaoğlu, Ö, Keskin K. (2019) Egzersiz Biyokimyası: Spor Egzersiz, Sağlık: İnsan Performansının Biyokimyasal Temelleri. Ankara: Gazi Kitapevi
  • Harada, C. N., Love, M. C. N., & Triebel, K. L. (2013). Normal cognitive aging. Clinics in geriatric medicine, 29(4), 737-752
  • Huijgen, B. C., Leemhuis, S., Kok, N. M., Verburgh, L., Oosterlaan, J., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., & Visscher, C. (2015). Cognitive functions in elite and sub-elite youth soccer players aged 13 to 17 years. PloS one, 10(12), e0144580.
  • Jacobson, J., & Matthaeus, L. (2014). Athletics and executive functioning: How athletic participation and sport type correlate with cognitive performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(5), 521-527.
  • Kasenova, A. S., Eszhanova, L. E., Tursbekova, D. D., & Durmanova, A. K. (2017). The influence of sleep disorders on cognitive functions of a brain at patients with Type 2 diabetes. Drug Invention Today, 9(3).
  • Kashihara, K., Maruyama, T., Murota, M., & Nakahara, Y. (2009). Positive effects of acute and moderate physical exercise on cognitive function. Journal of physiological, 28(4), 155-164.
  • Khodarahimi, S. (2018). Self-reported nutritional status, executive functions, and cognitive flexibility in adults. Journal of Mind and Medical Sciences, 5(2), 210-217
  • Krenn, B., Finkenzeller, T., Würth, S., & Amesberger, G. (2018). Sport type determines differences in executive functions in elite athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38, 72-79.
  • Kvalø, S. E., Bru, E., Brønnick, K., & Dyrstad, S. M. (2017). Does increased physical activity in school affect children's executive function and aerobic fitness?. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 27(12), 1833-1841.
  • Lundgren, T., Högman, L., Näslund, M., & Parling, T. (2016). Preliminary investigation of executive functions in elite ice hockey players. Journal of clinical sport psychology, 10(4), 324-335.
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100.
  • Niederer, I., Kriemler, S., Gut, J., Hartmann, T., Schindler, C., Barral, J., & Puder, J. J. (2011). Relationship of aerobic fitness and motor skills with memory and attention in preschoolers (Ballabeina): a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. BMC pediatrics, 11(1), 34 PLoS One, 12(2), e0170845.
  • Reitan, R.M. (1958). Validity of the Trail Making Test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptuals and Motor Skills, 8, ss. 271-276.
  • Richard, E., Laughlin, G., Kritz-Silverstein, D., Reas, E., Barrett-Connor, E., & McEvoy, L. (2018). Dietary Patterns and Cognitive Function among Older Community-Dwelling Adults. Nutrients, 10(8), 1088
  • Taddei, F., Bultrini, A., Spinelli, D., & Di Russo, F. (2012). Neural correlates of attentional and executive processing in middle-age fencers. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 44(6), 1057-1066.
  • Vestberg, T., Reinebo, G., Maurex, L., Ingvar, M., & Petrovic, P. (2017). Core executive functions are associated with success in young elite soccer players. PLoS One, 12(2), e0170845.
  • Voss, M. W., Kramer, A. F., Basak, C., Prakash, R. S., & Roberts, B. (2010). Are expert athletes ‘expert’in the cognitive laboratory? A meta‐analytic review of cognition and sport expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(6), 812-826.
  • Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100.
  • Wang, C. H., Chang, C. C., Liang, Y. M., Shih, C. M., Chiu, W. S., Tseng, P., ... & Juan, C. H. (2013). Open vs. closed skill sports and the modulation of inhibitory control. PloS one, 8(2), e55773.
  • Xiong, S., Li, X., & Tao, K. (2017). Effects of Structured Physical Activity Program on Chinese Young Children’s Executive Functions and Perceived PhysicalCompetence in a Day Care Center. BioMed research international, 2017.
  • Yolton, K., Dietrich, K., Auinger, P., Lanphear, B. P., & Hornung, R. (2004). Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and cognitive abilities among US children and adolescents. Environmental health perspectives, 113(1), 98-103
  • Yu, Q., Chan, C. C., Chau, B., & Fu, A. S. (2017). Motor skill experience modulates executive control for task switching. Acta psychologica, 180, 88-97.
  • Zhao, E., Tranovich, M. J., DeAngelo, R., Kontos, A. P., & Wright, V. J. (2016). Chronic exercise preserves brain function in masters athletes when compared to sedentary counterparts. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 44(1), 8-13.

Year 2021, Volume: 3 Issue: 1, 33 - 40, 30.04.2021

Onur Tokgöz Nimet Korkmaz Serkan Pancar

Abstract

References

  • Alvurdu, S., Keskin, K. C., Koçak, M., Şenel, Ö., & Günay, M. (2019). Is Vertical Jump Associated with Change of Direction Ability in Soccer Players? A Pilot Study. The Journal of Eurasia Sport Sciences and Medicine, 1(2), 57-64. Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child development, 81(6), 1641-1660.
  • Bianco, V., Di Russo, F., Perri, R. L., & Berchicci, M. (2017). Different proactive and reactive action control in fencers’ and boxers’ brain. Neuroscience, 343, 260-268.
  • Chueh, T. Y., Huang, C. J., Hsieh, S. S., Chen, K. F., Chang, Y. K., & Hung, T. M. (2017). Sports training enhances visuo-spatial cognition regardless of open-closed typology. PeerJ, 5, e3336.
  • Cona, G., Cavazzana, A., Paoli, A., Marcolin, G., Grainer, A., & Bisiacchi, P. S. (2015). It’s a matter of mind! Cognitive functioning predicts the athletic performance in ultra-marathon runners. PloS one, 10(7), e0132943.
  • Davis, C. L., Tomporowski, P. D., McDowell, J. E., Austin, B. P., Miller, P. H., Yanasak, N. E., ... & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial. Health Psychology, 30(1), 91.
  • Deslandes, A., Moraes, H., Ferreira, C., Veiga, H., Silveira, H., Mouta, R., ... & Laks, J. (2009). Exercise and mental health: many reasons to move. Neuropsychobiology, 59(4), 191-98.
  • Di Russo, F., Bultrini, A., Brunelli, S., Delussu, A. S., Polidori, L., Taddei, F., ... & Spinelli, D. (2010). Benefits of sports participation for executive function in disabled athletes. Journal of Neurotrauma, 27(12), 2309-2319.
  • Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964.
  • Evert, D. L., & Oscar-Berman, M. (1995). Alcohol-related cognitive impairments. Alcohol Research, 19(2), 89
  • Paşaoğlu H, Günay M, Paşaoğlu, Ö, Keskin K. (2019) Egzersiz Biyokimyası: Spor Egzersiz, Sağlık: İnsan Performansının Biyokimyasal Temelleri. Ankara: Gazi Kitapevi
  • Harada, C. N., Love, M. C. N., & Triebel, K. L. (2013). Normal cognitive aging. Clinics in geriatric medicine, 29(4), 737-752
  • Huijgen, B. C., Leemhuis, S., Kok, N. M., Verburgh, L., Oosterlaan, J., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., & Visscher, C. (2015). Cognitive functions in elite and sub-elite youth soccer players aged 13 to 17 years. PloS one, 10(12), e0144580.
  • Jacobson, J., & Matthaeus, L. (2014). Athletics and executive functioning: How athletic participation and sport type correlate with cognitive performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(5), 521-527.
  • Kasenova, A. S., Eszhanova, L. E., Tursbekova, D. D., & Durmanova, A. K. (2017). The influence of sleep disorders on cognitive functions of a brain at patients with Type 2 diabetes. Drug Invention Today, 9(3).
  • Kashihara, K., Maruyama, T., Murota, M., & Nakahara, Y. (2009). Positive effects of acute and moderate physical exercise on cognitive function. Journal of physiological, 28(4), 155-164.
  • Khodarahimi, S. (2018). Self-reported nutritional status, executive functions, and cognitive flexibility in adults. Journal of Mind and Medical Sciences, 5(2), 210-217
  • Krenn, B., Finkenzeller, T., Würth, S., & Amesberger, G. (2018). Sport type determines differences in executive functions in elite athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38, 72-79.
  • Kvalø, S. E., Bru, E., Brønnick, K., & Dyrstad, S. M. (2017). Does increased physical activity in school affect children's executive function and aerobic fitness?. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 27(12), 1833-1841.
  • Lundgren, T., Högman, L., Näslund, M., & Parling, T. (2016). Preliminary investigation of executive functions in elite ice hockey players. Journal of clinical sport psychology, 10(4), 324-335.
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100.
  • Niederer, I., Kriemler, S., Gut, J., Hartmann, T., Schindler, C., Barral, J., & Puder, J. J. (2011). Relationship of aerobic fitness and motor skills with memory and attention in preschoolers (Ballabeina): a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. BMC pediatrics, 11(1), 34 PLoS One, 12(2), e0170845.
  • Reitan, R.M. (1958). Validity of the Trail Making Test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptuals and Motor Skills, 8, ss. 271-276.
  • Richard, E., Laughlin, G., Kritz-Silverstein, D., Reas, E., Barrett-Connor, E., & McEvoy, L. (2018). Dietary Patterns and Cognitive Function among Older Community-Dwelling Adults. Nutrients, 10(8), 1088
  • Taddei, F., Bultrini, A., Spinelli, D., & Di Russo, F. (2012). Neural correlates of attentional and executive processing in middle-age fencers. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 44(6), 1057-1066.
  • Vestberg, T., Reinebo, G., Maurex, L., Ingvar, M., & Petrovic, P. (2017). Core executive functions are associated with success in young elite soccer players. PLoS One, 12(2), e0170845.
  • Voss, M. W., Kramer, A. F., Basak, C., Prakash, R. S., & Roberts, B. (2010). Are expert athletes ‘expert’in the cognitive laboratory? A meta‐analytic review of cognition and sport expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(6), 812-826.
  • Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100.
  • Wang, C. H., Chang, C. C., Liang, Y. M., Shih, C. M., Chiu, W. S., Tseng, P., ... & Juan, C. H. (2013). Open vs. closed skill sports and the modulation of inhibitory control. PloS one, 8(2), e55773.
  • Xiong, S., Li, X., & Tao, K. (2017). Effects of Structured Physical Activity Program on Chinese Young Children’s Executive Functions and Perceived PhysicalCompetence in a Day Care Center. BioMed research international, 2017.
  • Yolton, K., Dietrich, K., Auinger, P., Lanphear, B. P., & Hornung, R. (2004). Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and cognitive abilities among US children and adolescents. Environmental health perspectives, 113(1), 98-103
  • Yu, Q., Chan, C. C., Chau, B., & Fu, A. S. (2017). Motor skill experience modulates executive control for task switching. Acta psychologica, 180, 88-97.
  • Zhao, E., Tranovich, M. J., DeAngelo, R., Kontos, A. P., & Wright, V. J. (2016). Chronic exercise preserves brain function in masters athletes when compared to sedentary counterparts. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 44(1), 8-13.
There are 32 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Sports Medicine
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Onur Tokgöz 0000-0001-7956-8851

Nimet Korkmaz 0000-0001-7648-3289

Serkan Pancar

Publication Date April 30, 2021
Acceptance Date April 26, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021 Volume: 3 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Tokgöz, O., Korkmaz, N., & Pancar, S. (2021). The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes. The Journal of Eurasia Sport Sciences and Medicine, 3(1), 33-40.
AMA Tokgöz O, Korkmaz N, Pancar S. The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes. JESSM. April 2021;3(1):33-40.
Chicago Tokgöz, Onur, Nimet Korkmaz, and Serkan Pancar. “The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes”. The Journal of Eurasia Sport Sciences and Medicine 3, no. 1 (April 2021): 33-40.
EndNote Tokgöz O, Korkmaz N, Pancar S (April 1, 2021) The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes. The Journal of Eurasia Sport Sciences and Medicine 3 1 33–40.
IEEE O. Tokgöz, N. Korkmaz, and S. Pancar, “The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes”, JESSM, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 33–40, 2021.
ISNAD Tokgöz, Onur et al. “The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes”. The Journal of Eurasia Sport Sciences and Medicine 3/1 (April 2021), 33-40.
JAMA Tokgöz O, Korkmaz N, Pancar S. The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes. JESSM. 2021;3:33–40.
MLA Tokgöz, Onur et al. “The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes”. The Journal of Eurasia Sport Sciences and Medicine, vol. 3, no. 1, 2021, pp. 33-40.
Vancouver Tokgöz O, Korkmaz N, Pancar S. The Comparison of Trail Making Test Scores of Open and Closed Skill Sports Athletes. JESSM. 2021;3(1):33-40.
 Download Cover Image